摘要：北太平洋被纳入近代世界经济体系，实现早期全球化，是国际贸易不断拓展影响的结果。马尼拉大帆船贸易最早开辟了西欧—拉美—中国之间的跨洋商业联系，北太平洋在其中主要体现为一条海洋贸易往返航线，而远非一个由频密的商贸网络支撑的整体经济区域。18世纪末至19世纪30年代，北太平洋上发展起了新的跨洋国际贸易——美国贸易商主导下的对华海洋动物毛皮贸易和檀香木贸易。两种贸易共同作用，最终开辟成直接联通北美西海岸和中国的北太平洋国际贸易商路，并与西欧—北美、西欧—东亚两条传统世界贸易线相衔接，形成新的三角或多角贸易，在此基础上初步开启了北太平洋地区经济一体化的进程。北太平洋的早期贸易全球化，更新和发展了全球贸易网络，并为自由贸易时代的到来和世界经济“去大西洋中心化”奠定了基础。
原载《史学集刊》2020年第6期
三、毛皮、檀香木贸易与北太平洋的商业开发
四、海洋贸易驱动下北太平洋贸易网络的形成
结语
注释：
[1]文中的“北太平洋”和“南太平洋”并非按赤道划分，而是依据历史著述中常见的标准分定，大致以北纬15度为界，该界限以南的太平洋部分即为各类史料中常见的多岛屿分布的“南海”(South Sea)，以北部分则基本是一片“海洋荒漠”，仅零星分布有夏威夷群岛等少数岛屿。
[2]何芳川：《太平洋贸易网500年》，河南人民出版社1998年版，第92－94、132、137－140页。
[3]对19世纪太平洋贸易商路和贸易网的研究，国内外史学界的现有成果多从国别、小区域或具体议题着手，基本集中在西太平洋区域(如中国、东南亚、美国、日本、菲律宾、澳大利亚等)、马尼拉大帆船贸易、葡萄牙大商帆贸易等问题(如Dennis O. Flynn, Arturo Giráldez and James Sobredo, eds., European Entry into the Pacific, Spain and the AcapulcoManila Galleons, Aldershot, Hampshire: Ashgate Publishing Limited, 2001；费晟：《论18世纪后期大洋洲地区对华通航问题》，李庆新主编：《海洋史研究》第12辑，社会科学文献出版社2017年版)。从太平洋或世界经济整体视角做系统探讨的学者很少，何芳川先生是一个代表，他所著述的《太平洋贸易网500年》、《崛起的太平洋》(北京大学出版社1991年版)和《澳门与葡萄牙大商帆——葡萄牙与近代早期太平洋贸易网的形成》(北京大学出版社1996年版)等成为具有拓荒性意义的作品；其他还有如Dennis O. Flynn and Arturo Giráldez, “Arbitrage, China, and World Trade inthe Early Modern World Period，” Journalof the Economic and Social History of the Orient, Vol.38, No.4(November 1995), pp.429－448等。迄今为止，对19世纪北太平洋贸易商路和贸易网的系统研究尚未见专论，西方史学界对近代世界贸易网的观念一直停滞于由欧洲和大西洋贸易为中心向世界其他地区的发散延展，对19世纪北太平洋地区萌生的明显脱离传统“欧洲中心”的新贸易网络缺乏关注和认识。
[4] [法]费尔南·布罗代尔著，顾良、施康强译：《十五至十八世纪的物质文明、经济和资本主义》第一卷，商务印书馆2017年版，第505页。
[5] Junald Dawa Ango, “The Cebu Acapulco Galleon Trade, ” Philippine Quarterly of Cultureand Society, Vol.38, No.2(2010), pp.149－153，158，164; Arturo Giraldez, The Age ofTrade: The Manila Galleons and the Dawn of the Global Economy, Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 2015, pp.120, 126－130; William L. Schurz, The Manila Galleon, New York: E. P. Dutton and Company, 1939, p．182.西班牙殖民者黎牙实比率领的这支船队首次完成该线路的往返航程，他们1564年11月21日从墨西哥出发，1565年2月13日到达菲律宾的萨马岛。6月从宿务启航回程，其中两艘北上循北太平洋暖流于10月8日抵达阿卡普尔科港。
[6]林被甸：《跨越太平洋——中国与拉丁美洲的文化交流》，何芳川主编：《中外文化交流史》，国际文化出版公司2008年版，第950页。
[7]费尔南·布罗代尔：《十五至十八世纪的物质文明、经济和资本主义》第一卷，第xliv页。
[8] Benito Legarda, Jr., “Two and a Half Centuries of the Galleon Trade, ” Philippine Studies, Vol.3, No.4 (1955), pp.363－367.
[9]文中所涉及之“贸易”(trade)，是指经济行为中的商品和服务的交易(the transactions of goods and services)；“商业”则是指commerce，狭义上的商业，即一种经济实体间有关商品和服务的交换(the exchange of goods or services)，是一种宏观经济购销(themacroeconomic purchase and sale)，包括与特定商品买卖有关的所有交易，因此在范畴上比“贸易”更大。两者尽管在概念上存在一定的差异，却又具有很强的关联和相容性，都以经济实体之间有关商品和服务的购与销为核心，因此常被结合使用，如“商贸”(commerce and trade)。
[10]韩琦：《马尼拉大帆船贸易对明王朝的影响》，杨栋梁主编：《世界近现代史研究》第10辑，社会科学文献出版社2013年版，第52页。
[11] Dennis O. Flynn and Arturo Giraldez, “Silk for Silver: Manila Macao Tradein the 17th Century, ” Philippine Studies, Vol.44, No.1 (1996), pp.62－64；
[12]何芳川：《太平洋贸易网500年》，第92页。
[13]韩琦：《马尼拉大帆船贸易对明王朝的影响》，杨栋梁主编：《世界近现代史研究》第10辑，第70页。
[14] Benito Legarda, Jr., “Two and a Half Centuries of the Galleon Trade，” pp.356－357; Steve Singer, “The Manila Galleon”. http：//www.treasureexpeditions.com/manila_galleons.htm(2018－03－02); Dennis O．Flynn and Arturo Giraldez, “Silk for Silver: ManilaMacao Trade in the 17thCentury, ” pp.59－60; 吴杰伟：《大帆船贸易与跨太平洋文化交流》，昆仑出版社2012年版，第296－312页。
[15] Donald D．Brand, “Geographical Exploration by the Spaniards, ” in Dennis O．Flynn, Arturo Giráldez and James Sobredo, eds., European Entry into thePacific, Spain and the Acapulco Manila Galleons, Aldershot,Hampshire: Ashgate Publishing Limited, 2001, pp.11－16, 19－25, 29－40.
[16] Military Posts—Council Bluffs to the Pacific Ocean (To Accompany Bill H．R.No.465), May 27, 1842, 27th Congress, 2nd Session, Serial Set Vol.No.410,Session Vol.No.4, H．Rpt.830, House Report, p.9.https：//infoweb.newsbank.com/iwsearch/we/Digital/？p_product＝SERIAL&p_theme＝sset2&p_nbid＝O64X5AHQMTYwMDQ5ODU3MC4yNDg4MTg6MToxNToxMDMuMjQ3LjE3OC4xNjA&p_action＝doc&p_queryname＝2&p_docref＝v2：0FD2A62D41CEB699@SERIAL104A86A6790BC668@13D5F89E0C531EF0@8(2020－07－18); Northwest Coast of America, May 15, 1826, Referred to the Committee ofthe Whole House, to which is Committed the Bill to Authorize the Establishmentof a Military Post or Posts within the Territory of the United States on the Pacific Ocean, and to Provide for the Exploration of its Coasts and Waters,19th Congress, 1st Session, Serial Set Vol.No.142, Session Vol.No.2, H．Rpt.213, House Report, pp.1－4.https：//infoweb.newsbank.com/iwsearch/we/Digital/？p_product＝SERIAL&p_theme＝sset2&p_nbid＝O64X5AHQMTYwMDQ5ODU3MC4yNDg4MTg6MToxNToxMDMuMjQ3LjE3OC4xNjA&p_action＝doc&p_docnum＝14&p_queryname＝3&p_docref＝v2：0FD2A62D41CEB699@SERIAL10012014CEC94358@@0(2020－07－18)．
[17] J.C.Beaglehole, ed., The Journals of Captain James Cook on His Voyages of Discovery, 3 vols., Rochester, NY: Boydell Press, 1999; John Ledyard, The Last Voyage of Captain Cook, the Collected Writings of John Ledyard, edited by James Zug, Washington, D. C.: National Geographic, 2005.
[18] George Vancouver, A Voyage of Discovery to the North Pacific Ocean and Round the World, 1791－1795: With an Introduction and Appendices, 4 vols., London: GG & J. Robinson andJ．Edwards, 1798; Jean François de Galaup de La Pérouse, A Voyage Round the World, Performed in the Years 1785, 1786, 1787, and 1788, by the Boussole and Astrolabe, 3 vols., edited by L. A.MilletMureau, London:Printed for J. Johnson, St.Paul's Church Yard, 1799.
[19] “北美西北海岸”(Northwest Coast of America)一词，多见于西方特别是美国历史著述，一般是指北美洲北起阿拉斯加南部、南至加利福尼亚西北部的太平洋海岸地区，20世纪的美国西部史研究中形成了单独的“西北海岸史”分支。
[20] Northwest Coast of America, May15, 1826, Referred to the Committee of the Whole House, to which is Committedthe Bill to Authorize the Establishment of a Military Post or Posts within theTerritory of the United States on the Pacific Ocean, and to Provide for the Exploration of its Coasts and Waters, 19th Congress, 1st Session, Serial Set Vol.No.142, Session Vol.No.2, H. Rpt.213, House Report, pp.4－5.https：//infoweb.newsbank.com/iwsearch/we/Digital/？p_product＝SERIAL&p_theme＝sset2&p_nbid＝O64X5AHQMTYwMDQ5ODU3MC4yNDg4MTg6MToxNToxMDMuMjQ3LjE3OC4xNjA&p_action＝doc&p_docnum＝14&p_queryname＝3&p_docref＝v2：0FD2A62D41CEB699@SERIAL10012014CEC94358@@0(2020－07－18); Kent G．Lightfoot, “RussianColonization: The Implications of Mercantile Colonial Practices in the North Pacific，” HistoricalArchaeology, Vol.37, No.4 (2003), pp.14－28; James R．Gibson, “Russian Expansion in Siberia and America, ” Geographical Review, Vol.70, No.2(1980), pp.127－136.
[21] Richard Sorrenson, “The Ship as a Scientific Instrument in the Eighteenth Century，”in Tony Ballantyne, ed.，Science, Empire and the European Exploration of the Pacific, Aldershot, Hampshire: Ashgate Publishing Limited,2004, pp.131－138.
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[24]李剑鸣：《美国的奠基时代，1585—1775》，人民出版社2002年版，第1－2、226－234页。
[25]付成双：《自然的边疆：北美西部开发中人与环境关系的变迁》，社会科学文献出版社2012年版，第153页。
[26]付成双：《自然的边疆：北美西部开发中人与环境关系的变迁》，第154－155页；张崇鼎编著：《加拿大经济史》，四川大学出版社1993年版，第49页。
[27] E.E.Rich, The History of the Hudson's Bay Company, 1670－1870, Vol.1, London: The Hudson's Bay Record Society, 1958, pp.50－55.
[28] Nancy J．Taniguchi, “Jed Smith, U．S.Trade, and Global Connections, ” Southern California Quarterly, Vol.88, No.4 (Winter2006－2007), pp.390－392.
[29] Ralph Lee Woodward, Jr., “The Merchants and Economic Development in the Americas, 1750－1850：A Preliminary Study,” Journal of Inter American Studies, Vol.10, No.1(Jan.1968), pp.138－139.
[30]很多学者认为美国在太平洋地区的利益从19世纪40年代的加利福尼亚“淘金热”才正式发端，但诸多证据表明，无论是在民间还是政府层面，美国在太平洋的利益之初奠都与共和国的建立同步。Kenneth J. Bertrand, “Geographical Explorationby the United States，” in Herman R．Friis, ed.，The Pacific Basin: A History of Its GeographicalExploration, New York: American Geographical Society, 1967.
[31] William J．Barger, “New Players at the Table: How Americans Came to Dominate Early Trade in the North Pacific, ” Southern California Quarterly,Vol.90, No.3 (Fall 2008), pp.231－233.
[32] Captain George Dixon, A Voyage Round the World, London: Geo.Goulding, 1789, pp.315－316.
[33] F.W.Howay, “An Outline Sketch of the Maritime Fur Trade: Presidential Address,” p. 7.
[34] John Ledyard, A Journal of Captain Cook's Last Voyage to the Pacific Ocean, p. 70; Donald Jacson, “Ledyard and Lapérouse: A Contrast in Northwestern Exploration，” p．496.
[35] Katherine H. Griffin and Peter Drummey,“Manuscripts on the American China Trade at the Massachusetts Historical Society,” Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society, Third Series, Vol.100(1988), p. 129; Donald D. Johnson, The United States in the Pacific: Private Interests and Public Policies, 1784－1899, Westport, Connecticut: Praeger Publishers, 1995, p．25.
[36] S.E.Morison, The Maritime History of Massachusetts, 1783－1860, Cambridge, MA: Riverside Press, 1961,pp.43－44.
[37] F.W.Howay, “An Outline Sketch of the Maritime Fur Trade: Presidential Address,” pp.7－8.
[38] A.Jon Kimerling and Philip L. Jackson, Atlas of the Pacific Northwest, 7th ed., Corvallis, Oreg.: Oregon State University Press, 1985, p．11; F．W.Howay, “An Outline Sketch of the Maritime Fur Trade: Presidential Address，” p. 7; Richard Mackie, Trading Beyond the Mountains: The British Fur Trade on the Pacific, 1793－1843, Vancouver: UBC Press, 2000, p．36.
[39] Exploration of the Northwest Coast, January 16,1826, 19th Congress, 1st Session, Serial Set Vol.No.141, Session Vol.No.1, H．Rpt.35, House Report,pp.19－21.https：//infoweb.newsbank.com/iwsearch/we/Digital/？p_product＝SERIAL&p_theme＝sset2&p_nbid＝+36++O64X5AHQMTYwMDQ5ODU3MC4yNDg4MTg6MToxNToxMDMuMjQ3LjE3OC4xNjA&p_action＝doc&p_docnum＝5&p_queryname＝4&p_docref＝v2：0FD2A62D41CEB699@SERIAL1001200B48C43F58@@0(2020－07－18)．
[40] G.R.Elliott, “Frontiers and Forms ofEnterprise: The Case of the North Pacific, 1785－1825, ” pp.251－261.
[41] Julius W．Pratt, “Fur Trade Strategy and the American LeftFlank in the War of 1812,” The AmericanHistorical Review, Vol.40, No.2 (1935), pp.246－273.
[42] Paul E．Fontenoy, “Ginseng, Otter Skins, and Sandalwood:The Conundrum of the China Trade, ” The Northern Mariner/Le Marin du nord,Vol.7, No.1 (1997), p.7.
[43] [美]K.S.赖德烈著，陈郁译：《早期中美关系史，1784—1844》，商务印书馆1963年版，第30、40页。
[44] Dorothy Shineberg, They Came for Sandalwood: A Study of the Sandalwood Trade in the SouthWest Pacific, 1830－1865,Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, 1967.
[45] Report of the Committee, to Whom was Referred a Resolution of the House of Representatives of the 19th of December last, directing an Inquiry into the Situation of the Settlements on the Pacific Ocean, and the Expediency of Occupying the Columbia River; Accompanied with aBill to Authorize the Occupation of the Columbia River, &c.，January 25, 1821.Read, and with the Bill Committed to a Committee of the Whole House, tomorrow, 16thCongress, 2nd Session, Serial Set Vol.No.57, Session Vol.No.1, H．Rpt.45, House Report, p．13.https：//infoweb.newsbank.com/iwsearch/we/Digital/？p_product＝SERIAL&p_theme＝sset2&p_nbid＝O64X5AHQMTYwMDQ5ODU3MC4yNDg4MTg6MToxNToxMDMuMjQ3LjE3OC4xNjA&p_action＝doc&p_docnum＝9&p_queryname＝5&p_docref＝v2：0FD2A62D41CEB699@SERIAL0FE50DFE8B850150@@0(2020－07－20)．
[46]George Vancouver, A Voyage of Discovery to theNorth Pacific Ocean, and Round the World, London: G. G.and J. Robinson,1798, Vol.1, pp.172－173; Albert P．Taylor,Under Hawaiian Skies, A Narrative of the Romance, Adventure and History ofthe Hawaiian Islands, A Complete Historical Account, Honolulu: The Advertiser Publishing Company, 1926, p．149.
[47] [美]马士著，区宗华译：《东印度公司对华贸易编年史》第四卷，广东省出版集团·广东人民出版社2016年版，第440页；[美]亨特著，冯树铁、沈正邦译：《广州番鬼录·旧中国杂记》，广东人民出版社2009年版，第98页。
[48] W.D.Alexander, A Brief History of the Hawaiian People, New York: American Book Company, 1899, p．158.
[49]马士：《东印度公司对华贸易编年史》第四卷，第440页；James R. Gibson, Otter Skins, Boston Ships, and China Goods: The Maritime Fur Trade of the Northwest Coast, 1785－1841, Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1992, pp.304－305.
[50]马士：《东印度公司对华贸易编年史》第四卷，第440页。
[51] Charles Gutzlaff, A Sketch of Chinese History, Ancient and Modern,Vol.2, London: Smith, Elder and Co., Cornhill, 1834, Appendix IV.
[52] Harold Whitman Bradley, The American Frontier in Hawaii: The Pioneers,1789－1843, Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1942, p. 67; James R. Gibson, Otter Skins, Boston Ships, and China Goods: The MaritimeFur Trade of the Northwest Coast, 1785－1841, p．256.
[53] Department of Agriculture, State of Hawaii, History of Agriculture in Hawaii. http://hdoa.hawaii.gov/wpcontent/uploads/2013/01/HISTORYOFAGRICULTUREINHAWAII.pdf(2013－12－21)．
[54]马士：《东印度公司对华贸易编年史》第四卷，第440页。
[55] Pacific Ocean and South Seas, Letter from the Secretary of the Navy,Transmitting a Report of J．N.Reynolds, in Relation to Islands, Reefs, andShoals in the Pacific Ocean, &c., January 27, 1835, Referred to the Committee on Commerce, 23rd Congress, 2nd Session, Serial Set Vol.No.273, Session Vol.No.3, H．Doc.105, House Document, pp.16－28.https：//infoweb.newsbank.com/iwsearch/we/Digital/？p_product＝SERIAL&p_theme＝sset2&p_nbid＝O64X5AHQMTYwMDQ5ODU3MC4yNDg4MTg6MToxNToxMDMuMjQ3LjE3OC4xNjA&p_action＝doc&p_docnum＝21&p_queryname＝6&p_docref＝v2：0FD2A62D41CEB699@SERIAL102AE1CFF64D4A78@@0(2020－07－18)．
[56] Report of the Committee, to Whom was Referred a Resolution of the House of Representatives of the 19th of December last, directing an Inquiry into theSituation of the Settlements on the Pacific Ocean, and the Expediency ofOccupying the Columbia River; Accompanied with a Bill to Authorize the Occupation of the Columbia River, &c.，January25, 1821, Read, and with the Bill Committed to a Committee of the Whole House,tomorrow, 16th Congress, 2nd Session, Serial Set Vol.No.57, Session Vol.No.1,H. Rpt.45, House Report, p. 8, https：//infoweb.newsbank.com/iwsearch/we/Digital/？p_product＝SERIAL&p_theme＝sset2&p_nbid＝O64X5AHQMTYwMDQ5ODU3MC4yNDg4MTg6MToxNToxMDMuMjQ3LjE3OC4xNjA&p_action＝doc&p_docnum＝39&p_queryname＝7&p_docref＝v2：0FD2A62D41CEB699@SERIAL0FE50DFE8B850150@@0(2020－07－18)．
[57] Captain George Dixon, A Voyage Round the World, London: Geo.Goulding,1789, pp.265－266; Ralph S．Kuykendall, “Early Hawaiian Commercial Development，” Pacific Historical Review, Vol.3, No.4 (Dec.1934), p. 365; C. P.Claret Fleurieu, Voyage Autour du Monde par Etienne Marchand, Paris, An VIVIII, I, p.410, from Harold Whitman Bradley, “The Hawaiian Islands and the Pacific FurTrade, 1785－1813，” The Pacific Northwest Quarterly, Vol.30, No.3 (Jul.1939), pp.276－277.
[58] James R．Gibson, Otter Skins, Boston Ships, and China Goods: The Maritime Fur Trade of the Northwest Coast, 1785－1841, p. 50.
[59] Harold Whitman Bradley, “The Hawaiian Islands and the Pacific Fur Trade,1785－1813, ” The Pacific Northwest Quarterly, Vol.30, No.3 (Jul.1939), p．289.
[60] Ralph S. Kuykendall, “Early Hawaiian Commercial Development, ” Pacific Historical Review, Vol.3, No.4 (Dec.1934), p. 371.
[61] Steamers between California and China, to Accompany Bill H. R.No.472,February 19, 1851, 31st Congress, 2nd Session, Serial Set Vol.No.606, SessionVol.No.1, H. Rpt.34, House Report, pp.3－4.https：//infoweb.newsbank.com/iwsearch/we/Digital/？p_product＝SERIAL&p_theme＝sset2&p_nbid＝O64X5AHQMTYwMDQ5ODU3MC4yNDg4MTg6MToxNToxMDMuMjQ3LjE3OC4xNjA&p_action＝doc&p_docnum＝5&p_queryname＝8&p_docref＝v2：0FD2A62D41CEB699@SERIAL105E1363D92024E8@@0(2020－07－20)．
[62] Exploration—South Seas, Memorial of Edmund Fanning, respectfullySoliciting a Loan from Congress to the Support and Advancement of Commerce, theFisheries, &c., by Exploration in the South Seas, February 5, 1840,referred to the Committee on Naval Affairs, 26th Congress, 1st Session, SerialSet Vol.No.364, Session Vol.No.2, H．Doc.57,House Document, p. 10.https：//infoweb.newsbank.com/iwsearch/we/Digital/？p_product＝SERIAL&p_theme＝sset2&p_nbid＝O64X5AHQMTYwMDQ5ODU3MC4yNDg4MTg6MToxNToxMDMuMjQ3LjE3OC4xNjA&p_action＝doc&p_docnum＝1&p_queryname＝9&p_docref＝v2：0FD2A62D41CEB699@SERIAL－103F5ECBF8C01B50@－@0(2020－07－18); Hamilton Andrews Hill, The Trade and Commerce of Boston, 1630 to 1890,Boston: Damrell & Upham, 1895, p．113;Harold Whitman Bradley, “The Hawaiian Islands and the Pacific Fur Trade, 1785－1813，” The Pacific Northwest Quarterly, Vol.30, No.3 (Jul.1939), pp.276－277.
[63] Pacific Ocean and South Seas, Letter from the Secretary of the Navy,Transmitting a Report of J．N. Reynolds, in Relation to Islands, Reefs, and Shoals in the Pacific Ocean, &c., January 27, 1835, Referred to the Committee on Commerce, 23rd Congress, 2nd Session, Serial Set Vol.No.273,Session Vol.No.3, H．Doc.105, House Document, pp.4, 25, 27.https：//infoweb.newsbank.com/iw－search/we/Digital/？p_product＝SERIAL&p_theme＝sset2&p_nbid＝O64X5AHQMTYwMDQODU3MC4yNDg4MTg6MToxNToxMDMuMjQ35LjE3OC4xNjA&p_action＝doc&p_docnum＝4&p_queryname＝10&p_docref＝v2：0FD2A62D41CEB699@SERIAL－102AE1CFF64D4A78@－@0(2020－07－20)．
[64] Kenneth Scott Latourette, “Voyages of American Ships to China, 1784－1844, ” Transactions of the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences,Vol.28(1927), pp.255－261.
[65] David Lavender, Land of Giants, the Dive to the Pacific Northwest,1750－1950, p. 23.
[66] F.W.Howay, “An Outline Sketch of the Maritime Fur Trade: PresidentialAddress, ” p. 10.
[67] F.W.Howay, “An Outline Sketch of the Maritime Fur Trade: PresidentialAddress, ” p. 14.
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[69]何芳川：《太平洋贸易网500年》，杨栋梁主编：《世界近现代史研究》第10辑，第140页。